Stoicism, a school of philosophy that emerged in ancient Greece around 300 BCE, has withstood the test of time, serving as a guiding light for those seeking wisdom and tranquility in the face of life’s challenges. Developed by both the Greeks and Romans, Stoicism aimed to help individuals become truly admirable human beings. It addressed questions about what constitutes a fulfilling life and how to achieve happiness. These concepts are foundational in many religious traditions.
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In recent years, Stoicism has experienced a significant resurgence of interest. One of its leading contemporary advocates is Dr Donald Robertson, a cognitive behavioural psychologist. His book How to Think Like a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius provides a useful handbook for incorporating Stoic principles into one’s life.
Founders of Stoicism
The roots of Stoicism can be traced back to Zeno of Citium (Cyprus, 334 BCE–262 BCE), an ancient Greek philosopher who established the school in Athens around 300 BCE. Influenced by the teachings of Socrates – who demonstrated critical thinking by questioning unexamined beliefs – Zeno emphasized the pursuit of virtue as the highest good and the importance of living in harmony with Nature.
Among the Romans, three key figures, namely Seneca (4 BCE–65 CE), Epictetus (55–135 CE), and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE), are regarded as the principal leaders of Stoic thought. While many others contributed, the writings of these three have been preserved, offering direct insight into their philosophies.
The Four Cardinal Virtues
The Stoics identified four cardinal virtues to guide their lives:
- Wisdom (Prudence): Careful deliberation, good judgment, perspective, and common sense.
- Justice (Fairness): Good-heartedness, benevolence, public service, fair dealing, and contributing to society.
- Courage (Fortitude): Bravery, perseverance, authenticity, honesty, and self-confidence.
- Moderation (Self-Discipline): Self-control, orderliness, forgiveness of self and others, compassion, humility, and positive thinking.
Individuals who choose to follow these guidelines and apply them to themselves naturally develop into more well-rounded, mature human beings.
Essential Books on Stoicism
Letters from a Stoic by Seneca (4 BCE–65 CE)
Seneca, a prominent Stoic philosopher, statesman, and tutor to the young Nero, shares his wisdom through letters addressed to his friend Lucilius. Letters from a Stoic explores ethics, reason, tranquillity, and spirituality. Seneca reminds us, “It is not the man who has little, but the man who desires more, who is poor.”
In Letter XLI, he writes, “God is near you, is with you, is inside you. Yes, Lucilius, there resides within us a divine spirit, which watches us and guards us in the evil and good we do. As we treat him, so he will treat us. No man, indeed, is good without God.”
Discourses and Enchiridion by Epictetus (55–135 CE)
Epictetus, once a slave, became a philosopher and teacher who stressed the distinction between what is within our control and what is not. He stated, “We cannot choose our external circumstances, but we can always choose how we respond to them.”
The Enchiridion serves as a practical guide to applying Stoic principles daily, offering succinct advice on dealing with adversity, managing emotions, and maintaining moral integrity. Intrinsic to his teachings is the belief in a supreme ultimate: nature.
In Discourses (Book 2, Verse 14, 11–12), Epictetus says, “Philosophers say that the first thing to learn is that God exists, he governs the world, and that we cannot keep our actions secret, that even our thoughts and inclinations are known to him. The next thing to learn about is the divine nature, because we will have to imitate the gods if we intend to obey them and win their favour.”
Meditations by Marcus Aurelius (121–189 CE)
Often regarded as the quintessential Stoic text, Meditations is a collection of personal reflections by the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius. He contemplates Stoic principles and offers practical guidance on leading a virtuous life amidst the trials of ruling an empire. In Book 3, verse 7, he praises the individual who “puts first his own mind and divinity, and worships the supremacy of the god within him.”
In Book 4, verse 40, he instructs us to “think always of the Universe as one living creature … the very web and mesh of it all.” And in Book 4, verse 14, he reminds himself, “You have subsisted as a part of the Whole. You will vanish into that which gave you birth: or rather, you will be changed, taken up into the generative principle of the universe.”
How to Live a Stoic Life
True Stoicism is not the small “s” stoicism of a “stiff upper lip” and repressed emotions. It involves facing reality, acknowledging emotions, working through them, and then moving on. Stoics see psychological growth as a work in progress, always within our control. They encourage us to embrace honesty, pragmatism, and kindness as we seek to understand life’s truths.
They were also spiritual, believing in a universal energy or force that pervades everything, including us. We can access this energy by looking inward for our higher self and inviting it to guide us. This higher self can take any form we choose. The ultimate goal of Stoicism is to produce a mature human being, which should be the meaning of our lives.
These ideas have existed in the human psyche for countless generations. Each culture and individual manifests the numinous in unique ways, and we should be tolerant of one another’s different ways of doing so. Stoicism’s accumulated wisdom spans thousands of years, but we demonstrate our own wisdom by choosing to live by these principles in the present. By applying them, we can create a genuinely happy life.
My Own Journey
In my memoir, A Work in Progress: A Scottish Lass in Africa, I share the story of a young girl who grew up during the Great Depression, navigated the challenges of World War II, and embraced the opportunities and struggles of a new life in Africa.
This is not just my story; it’s a reflection on the joys and challenges of living fully – always learning and growing, even into my tenth decade.
I’d be honored to share my journey with you.
Questions for You:
Are you Stoic in your approach to life? Are you honest with yourself in all situations? Do you endeavour to apply truth in all your relationships?