Dee Brown's 1970 publication, "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West," stands as a watershed moment in the historiography of the American West. Unlike previous accounts that often celebrated or justified American expansion, Brown's work offered a starkly different narrative, one centered on the devastating impact of this expansion on the indigenous peoples who inhabited the land. The book's title itself, taken from a line in Stephen Vincent Benét's poem, evokes the profound tragedy of the 1890 massacre at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, an event that symbolized the perceived end of organized Native American resistance to the encroaching United States government. This report aims to provide a comprehensive summary and analysis of "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee," exploring its content, key themes, historical and cultural significance, and the unique approach adopted by its author.
The publication of "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" in 1970 occurred during a period of significant social and political turmoil in the United States. The ongoing Vietnam War had fostered a climate of skepticism towards government narratives and a growing awareness of injustice, while the Civil Rights Movement had brought issues of systemic inequality to the forefront of national consciousness. This environment likely contributed to the book's immediate resonance with a public increasingly willing to question traditional accounts of American history and to consider the perspectives of marginalized communities. Furthermore, the book's subtitle, "An Indian History of the American West," explicitly signaled its departure from the conventional, Eurocentric perspective that had long dominated historical narratives of this period. By centering the experiences and viewpoints of Native American tribes, Brown positioned his work as a direct challenge to the established historical understanding of westward expansion.
"Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" chronicles the tumultuous period between 1860 and 1890, a time marked by broken treaties, relentless warfare, and tragic massacres that profoundly altered the landscape of the American West and the lives of its indigenous inhabitants. The narrative unfolds chronologically, commencing with the harrowing "Long Walk" of the Navajo people in 1864, a forced relocation across the deserts of New Mexico, and reaching its devastating climax with the massacre of hundreds of unarmed Lakota Sioux at Wounded Knee Creek in December 1890. Throughout these three decades, the book meticulously documents the systematic destruction of numerous Native American tribes as white settlers, driven by the allure of land and resources, pushed westward, often with the direct support and encouragement of the United States government. Brown weaves together poignant and often heartbreaking accounts of pivotal historical events, battles, and massacres, all viewed through the prism of the Native Americans who experienced them firsthand. The stories of legendary Native American leaders, including Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Cochise, and Geronimo, who valiantly resisted the relentless encroachment of the U.S. government, are central to the narrative, highlighting their courage, their struggles, and their ultimate tragic fates. To ensure the authenticity of the Native American voice, Brown draws extensively upon primary source materials, incorporating council records, autobiographies, and firsthand testimonies from indigenous individuals. The book's structure often dedicates chapters to the experiences of specific tribes or particular events, effectively illustrating the widespread pattern of injustice and profound loss that afflicted diverse Native American nations across the West.
The book's narrative structure, which focuses on individual tribes and their unique experiences of dispossession, creates a powerful cumulative effect. By detailing the specific histories of tribes like the Navajo, Santee Sioux, Cheyenne, and Sioux, Brown reveals a consistent pattern of treaty violations, forced removals from ancestral lands, and brutal violence perpetrated by the U.S. government. The repetition of this pattern across various Native American nations underscores the systematic and widespread nature of the injustice they faced. Furthermore, the juxtaposition of "broken promises" and "massacre" throughout the book strongly suggests a direct causal relationship between the U.S. government's consistent failure to uphold treaties and the resulting violence against Native American communities. The violation of agreements and treaties by the American government often led to increased tensions, resistance from Native Americans attempting to protect their lands and way of life, and ultimately, violent responses from the U.S. military, culminating in tragic events such as the Wounded Knee Massacre.
The historical landscape depicted in "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" is one of profound upheaval and tragic conflict, meticulously detailing a series of pivotal events that shaped the fate of Native American tribes during the latter half of the 19th century. The narrative commences with the Long Walk of the Navajos in 1864 , a harrowing forced march that resulted in immense suffering and loss of life for the Navajo people as they were relocated to the inhospitable Bosque Redondo reservation. The book also recounts the conflicts with the Santee Dakota led by Little Crow in 1862 , sparked by broken treaties and the failure of the U.S. government to provide promised provisions, which led to a brutal uprising and its subsequent suppression. The Sand Creek Massacre of 1864 , where U.S. troops attacked a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment, killing hundreds of unarmed individuals, including women and children, stands as a stark example of the brutality of the era. While not explicitly detailed in the provided snippets, the context implies the inclusion of events like the Fetterman Massacre in 1866, a significant victory for the Lakota and Cheyenne in their resistance against the encroachment of the Bozeman Trail. The Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868 , which initially guaranteed the Sioux ownership of the sacred Black Hills, is highlighted as a key example of a treaty that was soon violated by the U.S. government following the discovery of gold. This violation directly led to the Great Sioux War of 1876-77 , which included the iconic Battle of Little Bighorn, a temporary but ultimately unsustainable victory for the Lakota and their allies. Brown also chronicles the poignant story of the Nez Percé tribe and Chief Joseph's valiant flight in 1877 as they attempted to reach the safety of Canada to avoid forced relocation. The prolonged Apache Wars spanning the 1860s to the 1880s, featuring the resistance of leaders like Cochise and Geronimo , further illustrate the widespread indigenous resistance to U.S. expansion. The emergence and spread of the Ghost Dance movement in the late 1880s and early 1890s , a spiritual movement offering hope for a return to traditional ways, is also a significant focus, particularly its misinterpretation by the U.S. government as a precursor to armed rebellion. This misinterpretation directly contributed to the tragic events surrounding the killing of Sitting Bull in 1890 and the culminating horror of the Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890. These events collectively paint a stark picture of a period marked by the U.S. government's consistent violation of treaties, its policy of forced relocations onto increasingly smaller and less desirable reservations, and the frequent use of military force to suppress any form of Native American resistance.
The recurrence of treaty violations followed by conflict and forced removal across numerous tribes during this period reveals a deliberate and systematic policy of dispossession enacted by the U.S. government, rather than a series of isolated incidents. The historical record, as presented by Brown, demonstrates a consistent pattern where agreements made with Native American nations were disregarded whenever they stood in the way of westward expansion and the acquisition of valuable resources. This systematic betrayal fostered an environment of distrust and hostility, often leading to conflict as tribes sought to defend their ancestral lands and ways of life. The U.S. government's response to such resistance was frequently military intervention, culminating in the forced removal of tribes to reservations, often in locations far from their homelands and unsuitable for their traditional livelihoods. Furthermore, the Ghost Dance movement, initially a spiritual expression of hope and a desire for cultural revitalization, was tragically misinterpreted by the U.S. government as a sign of impending armed conflict. This misinterpretation, fueled by fear and a lack of understanding of Native American spiritual practices, directly contributed to the heightened tensions on the Pine Ridge Reservation in 1890 and ultimately played a role in the tragic Wounded Knee Massacre. The government's reaction to the Ghost Dance underscores a broader pattern of misunderstanding and fear that often characterized its interactions with Native American communities, leading to tragic and unnecessary violence.
"Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" gives voice to the numerous Native American leaders who played pivotal roles in resisting the expansionist policies of the United States. Sitting Bull (Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake) of the Sioux/Lakota people emerges as a central figure, not only as a powerful symbol of resistance but also as a spiritual leader who played a crucial role in galvanizing his people against the encroachment of the U.S. government. His leadership at the Battle of Little Bighorn stands as a testament to his strategic acumen and his commitment to defending Lakota territory. Tragically, his eventual assassination by reservation police, fueled by government paranoia surrounding the Ghost Dance movement, further inflamed tensions and contributed to the volatile atmosphere leading up to the Wounded Knee Massacre. Crazy Horse (Tȟašúŋke Witkó), another influential leader from the Sioux/Lakota/Oglala tribes, is portrayed as a fierce warrior and a staunch defender of Lakota lands and traditional ways of life. His unwavering opposition to the U.S. government's policies and his crucial partnership with Sitting Bull in resisting military campaigns solidify his place as a key figure in Native American resistance. In contrast, Red Cloud (Maȟpíya Lúta), also a prominent Sioux/Lakota leader, initially led successful resistance against the U.S. government's attempts to build the Bozeman Trail, culminating in the Treaty of Fort Laramie. However, his later decision to pursue peace and relocate to a reservation created a rift with other leaders like Sitting Bull, highlighting the complex choices faced by Native American leaders in the face of overwhelming pressure. In the Southwest, Cochise of the Apache tribe led a prolonged struggle to protect his people's ancestral lands against both Mexican and American incursions , while Geronimo (Goyaałé) became a symbol of Apache defiance through his fierce resistance and repeated escapes from U.S. captivity. Further north, Little Crow (Taoyateduta) of the Santee Sioux led a desperate uprising in response to broken treaties and the threat of starvation , and Manuelito (Hastiin Chʼil Haajiní) of the Navajo people resisted the U.S. Army's attempts to forcibly relocate his tribe. The tragic figure of Black Kettle (Mo'ohtavetoo'o) of the Cheyenne tribe stands out for his persistent efforts to maintain peace, despite the horrific Sand Creek Massacre that decimated his people. Finally, Chief Joseph (Hinmatóowyalahtq̓it) of the Nez Percé people is remembered for his eloquent advocacy for his tribe's right to their lands and his skillful leadership during their remarkable but ultimately unsuccessful flight towards the Canadian border. Beyond these prominent individuals, Brown's narrative encompasses the experiences of numerous tribes, including the Sioux (Lakota, Dakota, and Santee), Navajo, Cheyenne, Apache, Arapaho, Modoc, Kiowa, Comanche, Nez Perce, Ponca, Ute, and Minneconjou Lakota , each with their own unique history of resistance and loss.
The book reveals the complex and varied ways in which Native American tribes and their leaders responded to the immense pressures of westward expansion. Their reactions ranged from fierce armed resistance, as exemplified by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, to attempts at negotiation and peaceful coexistence, as initially pursued by Red Cloud and Black Kettle. This diversity in response highlights the fact that Native American communities were not a monolithic entity but rather comprised distinct nations with their own political structures, cultural values, and strategic approaches to dealing with the encroaching U.S. government. However, despite their varied responses, the tragic fates of many of these prominent Native American leaders underscore the overwhelming power imbalance and the ultimately devastating impact of U.S. expansion on indigenous leadership and self-determination. The assassinations, deaths in battle, and forced surrenders of these leaders represent a significant loss for their people and a stark reminder of the human cost of the conflict.
Dee Brown's "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" powerfully articulates several central themes and arguments that challenge traditional understandings of American westward expansion. A recurring and prominent theme is the betrayal of treaties and promises made by the U.S. government to various Native American tribes. The book meticulously documents numerous instances where agreements guaranteeing land rights and resources were disregarded and broken as white settlers and the government sought further territorial and economic gains. This consistent pattern of deception and bad faith eroded trust between the two groups and fueled further conflict. The book also underscores the destructive impact of westward expansion itself, portraying the relentless push of white settlers as a driving force that led directly to the displacement, suffering, and near annihilation of Native American populations across the West. Brown does not shy away from depicting the inhumanity and brutality of the Indian Wars, offering an unflinching account of the violence, massacres, and atrocities committed by the U.S. military and white settlers against Native American communities, including the indiscriminate killing of women and children. Furthermore, the book reveals the U.S. government's deliberate policies aimed at forced assimilation and cultural genocide, detailing efforts to destroy Native American cultures, religions, and languages through the establishment of boarding schools and the suppression of traditional practices. Brown critically examines the ideology of Manifest Destiny , the belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand across the continent, often at the expense of the indigenous inhabitants, highlighting its role in justifying the injustices inflicted upon Native Americans. Central to Brown's work is the argument for the importance of the Native American perspective , asserting that the history of this period must be understood from the viewpoint of those who were most directly affected by it, whose voices have historically been marginalized or ignored.
Brown's narrative strongly suggests a direct causal link between the U.S. government's relentless desire for land and resources, an ambition often justified by the ideology of Manifest Destiny, and the systematic violation of treaties and the perpetration of violence against Native American tribes. The pursuit of westward expansion and the economic opportunities it promised consistently took precedence over the rights and well-being of the indigenous populations who already inhabited the land. By presenting the history from the Native American perspective, Brown fundamentally challenges the traditional, often romanticized narrative of westward expansion. He compels readers to confront the darker aspects of American history, prompting a critical re-evaluation of national identity and historical memory by centering the experiences of those who were dispossessed and subjected to immense suffering.
"Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" had a profound and lasting impact on American society and historical understanding. The book significantly shifted public perception of Native American history, fostering a greater awareness of the injustices and suffering endured by indigenous peoples, moving away from earlier, often stereotypical portrayals. It played a notable role in galvanizing support for the American Indian Movement (AIM) in the 1970s , providing historical context for contemporary struggles for Native American rights and self-determination. The AIM occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973, referencing the book's title and the historical massacre, serves as a powerful example of the book's direct influence on activism. The book's immense commercial success, selling millions of copies and remaining in print for over half a century , underscores its enduring relevance and impact on the national consciousness. By presenting Native Americans as complex individuals and communities with their own rich cultures and perspectives, Brown's narrative humanized them for a broad audience, challenging long-standing stereotypes that had often portrayed them as "savages". Furthermore, "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" inspired further historical scholarship, contributing to the development of more nuanced and Native-centered perspectives on American history and Native American studies. While the book has faced some criticisms, including arguments about its portrayal of Native Americans as primarily victims and potential historical inaccuracies , its overall impact on raising public awareness and prompting a re-evaluation of American history remains undeniable.
The direct connection between the book's publication and the rise of the American Indian Movement highlights the profound power of historical narratives to influence social and political activism. By bringing to light the historical injustices faced by Native Americans, Brown's work provided a crucial historical context and moral impetus for the activism of AIM, which sought to address contemporary issues facing indigenous communities. The occupation of Wounded Knee in 1973, a symbolic act that drew direct inspiration from the book's title and the tragic events of 1890, serves as a tangible example of how historical understanding can fuel social and political action. The enduring popularity and influence of "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" , even in the face of later historical analyses offering more nuanced perspectives, underscore its significance in initiating a broader public conversation about the historical injustices faced by indigenous peoples in the United States. While subsequent scholarship has offered more complex and agency-focused accounts of Native American experiences, Brown's work remains a crucial catalyst for public awareness and discussion about this critical period in American history.
Dee Brown (1908-2002) was a distinguished historian, writer of both fiction and non-fiction, and a dedicated librarian. His motivation for writing "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" stemmed from a long-held awareness of the injustices inflicted upon Native Americans, a recognition that began in his childhood and grew into a desire to challenge the prevalent myths and stereotypes that obscured the true history of the American West. Brown approached the writing of this book with meticulous research, relying heavily on a wide array of primary source materials to construct his narrative. He deliberately centered his narrative on the perspectives of Native Americans, utilizing their own words and interpretations of events whenever possible, and incorporating Native American terminology to reflect their worldview. Brown's writing style in "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" is often described as eloquent, compelling, and deeply empathetic , reflecting his profound sense of outrage at the injustices he documented. His stated aim was to tell the story of the American West "as the victims experienced it" , a commitment that guided his research and shaped his narrative choices. Notably, Brown often structured his chapters to highlight a recurring pattern of hope followed by betrayal and loss for the Native American tribes, effectively underscoring the overarching theme of broken promises and systematic dispossession.
Brown's background as both a historian and a writer likely contributed significantly to the book's widespread appeal and impact. His rigorous historical research provided a foundation of factual detail, while his narrative skills enabled him to present this history in a compelling and emotionally resonant manner, making it accessible to a broad readership. Furthermore, Brown's deliberate decision to center the Native American perspective and utilize their own voices in the narrative reflects a growing trend in historical scholarship towards challenging dominant narratives and amplifying the experiences of marginalized groups. His work stands as an early and influential example of this important shift in historical interpretation.
In conclusion, "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee" remains a profoundly significant work that fundamentally altered the understanding of the American West by foregrounding the experiences and perspectives of Native American tribes. Its enduring impact lies in its ability to raise public awareness about the historical injustices committed against indigenous peoples and its role in inspiring activism and advocating for Native American rights. While acknowledging its limitations and the ongoing evolution of historical scholarship, the book's contribution to initiating a more honest and critical examination of American history is undeniable. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of this complex history, further exploration of Native American voices and more recent scholarly works is highly recommended.
Table 1: Key Native American Figures in "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee"
| Name | Tribal Affiliation | Brief Description of Role and Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Sitting Bull | Sioux/Lakota | Spiritual leader and key figure in resistance against the U.S. government; led at Little Bighorn; assassination contributed to tensions before Wounded Knee. |
| Crazy Horse | Sioux/Lakota/Oglala | Fierce warrior and staunch defender of Lakota territory; partnered with Sitting Bull in resisting U.S. military campaigns. |
| Red Cloud | Sioux/Lakota | Initially resisted U.S. expansion, then negotiated peace and moved to a reservation, causing division among his people. |
| Cochise | Apache | Leader of the Chiricahua Apache in their long struggle to defend their homeland in the Southwest. |
| Geronimo | Apache | Symbol of Apache defiance through his fierce resistance and repeated escapes from U.S. captivity. |
| Little Crow | Santee Sioux | Led the Santee Sioux uprising in response to broken treaties and starvation. |
| Manuelito | Navajo | Led resistance against the U.S. Army's attempts to relocate the Navajo people. |
| Black Kettle | Cheyenne | Persistent in his efforts to maintain peace with white settlers, despite the tragic Sand Creek Massacre. |
| Chief Joseph | Nez Percé | Eloquent advocate for his people's right to their lands; led a remarkable but ultimately unsuccessful flight towards Canada. |
Table 2: Major Historical Events Covered in "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee"
| Event Name | Year | Primary Tribes Involved | Brief Description of Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Long Walk of the Navajos | 1864 | Navajo | Forced relocation of the Navajo people across New Mexico, resulting in immense suffering. |
| Santee Sioux Uprising | 1862 | Santee Sioux | Conflict sparked by broken treaties and withheld provisions, leading to brutal suppression. |
| Sand Creek Massacre | 1864 | Cheyenne and Arapaho | Unprovoked attack by U.S. troops on a peaceful encampment, resulting in the slaughter of hundreds. |
| Treaty of Fort Laramie | 1868 | Sioux | Treaty guaranteeing the Sioux ownership of the Black Hills, later violated by the U.S. government. |
| Battle of Little Bighorn | 1876 | Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho | Significant but temporary victory for Native American tribes against the U.S. Army. |
| Flight of the Nez Percés | 1877 | Nez Percé | Chief Joseph's attempt to lead his people to Canada to escape forced relocation. |
| Apache Wars | 1860s-1880s | Apache | Prolonged resistance by various Apache bands against the U.S. Army in the Southwest. |
| Ghost Dance Movement | 1880s-1890 | Various Plains Tribes | Spiritual movement promising a return to traditional ways, misinterpreted by the U.S. government. |
| Killing of Sitting Bull | 1890 | Sioux | Assassination of the revered Lakota leader by reservation police, increasing tensions. |
| Wounded Knee Massacre | 1890 | Lakota Sioux | Massacre of hundreds of unarmed Lakota men, women, and children by the U.S. Army, symbolizing the end of the Indian Wars. |