William James’s The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) is a landmark work in the psychology and philosophy of religion. Originating from his Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh (1901–1902), James’s book investigates religion not as a set of doctrines or institutional practices, but as a spectrum of individual, subjective experiences. His approach was revolutionary for its time, shifting the study of religion away from theology and organized structures to the inner life and personal encounters with the divine or transcendent145.
James’s intellectual context was the rise of the “new psychology” in the late 19th century, which emphasized empirical and scientific methods over purely philosophical or theological speculation. He was influenced by contemporaries like Edwin Diller Starbuck, whose work on the psychology of religion provided James with a wealth of personal accounts and case studies1. James’s goal was to understand why humans are religious and what practical benefits spirituality brings to individuals, assuming such experiences must serve some important function if they persist across cultures and epochs5.
Focus on Individual Experience
James deliberately excludes institutional religion and theology from his analysis, focusing instead on direct, immediate, and often private religious experiences. He argues that religious institutions are secondary—they transmit and codify the insights of original religious experiences but do not generate them. For James, the “heart” of religion is found in the personal, often ineffable encounters individuals have with what they perceive as the divine or ultimate reality146.
Variety and Range
The “varieties” in the title reflect James’s intention to catalog and analyze the full range of religious experiences, from the mystical and ecstatic to the melancholic and despairing. He draws on autobiographical accounts, literature, and case studies from both famous religious figures and ordinary people, primarily within the Christian tradition but with insights applicable to other faiths16.
1. Healthy-Mindedness vs. Sick Souls
James identifies two broad types of religious temperament:
Healthy-minded religion is characterized by optimism, a focus on life’s goodness, and a tendency to see evil as illusory or insignificant. This attitude is exemplified by figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson and the founders of Christian Science, who emphasize positive thinking and the “mind-cure” movement. James regards this as a particularly American contribution to religion15.
Sick souls are those who cannot ignore the reality of evil, suffering, and existential despair. Their religious experience is marked by a sense of sin, guilt, or alienation, often leading to profound psychological struggle. James, despite presenting these categories as value-neutral, confesses a personal affinity for the “sick soul” perspective, seeing in it a deeper engagement with the complexities of existence18.
2. The Divided Self and Conversion
A significant portion of James’s lectures explores the concept of the “divided self”—individuals who experience a rift between their ideals and their lived reality. This inner division can result in spiritual crisis, which is often resolved through religious conversion. James distinguishes between:
Sudden conversion, where a transformative religious experience radically and instantaneously alters a person’s character and outlook (as in the case of St. Paul).
Gradual conversion, where the change is more incremental and reflective, as seen in the lives of figures like Leo Tolstoy and John Bunyan.
Conversion, for James, is a psychological process that unifies the divided self, often leading to a sense of peace, purpose, and moral renewal8.
3. Mysticism
James devotes two lectures to mysticism, identifying four core characteristics of mystical experiences:
Ineffability: The experience cannot be adequately described in words.
Noetic quality: The experience conveys a sense of deep insight or knowledge.
Transience: The experience is fleeting.
Passivity: The individual feels as if they are being acted upon by a greater power.
James suggests that while mystical experiences may arise from unusual psychological or neurological states, their lasting impact on individuals and their perceived value cannot be dismissed1.
4. Pragmatic Value of Religious Experience
James is less concerned with the metaphysical truth of religious claims than with their practical effects on individuals’ lives. He proposes three criteria for evaluating religious experiences:
Immediate luminousness: Does the experience enlighten or inspire?
Philosophical reasonableness: Does it make sense or cohere with broader understanding?
Moral helpfulness: Does it lead to positive changes in character or behavior?
For James, the ultimate test of a religious experience is whether it contributes to a “larger, richer, more satisfying life” for the individual5.
James was writing at a time when scientific rationalism was challenging traditional religious belief. He was skeptical of the “Nothing-but” view, which reduces all religious experience to mere brain states or psychological pathology. While acknowledging that some religious experiences have “morbid origins,” he insists that their transformative effects and enduring value for those who have them must be taken seriously51.
He does not attempt to adjudicate the truth or falsity of religious beliefs but maintains that religious experiences are “facts” of human nature. Their significance lies not in their origins but in their consequences for the individual and, by extension, for society56.
James dismisses theology and dogma as secondary to the “hot moments” of religious passion. He argues that doctrines and rituals are the aftereffects of original religious experiences, which are themselves spontaneous, emotional, and deeply personal. After such experiences, individuals often seek to make sense of them through theology or philosophy, but these are, for James, scaffolding rather than the core of religion7.
This approach has been both lauded and critiqued. Some argue that by focusing exclusively on peak experiences, James neglects the importance of community, tradition, and daily religious practice. Others praise his modern, psychological perspective, which resonates with contemporary spiritual seekers who may have occasional transcendent experiences but do not affiliate with organized religion7.
The Varieties of Religious Experience was immediately recognized as a classic and remains influential in psychology, philosophy, and religious studies. James’s insistence on the reality and value of religious experience helped bridge the gap between scientific skepticism and spiritual longing. His pragmatic, open-minded approach allowed for a more nuanced understanding of religion as a human phenomenon, emphasizing its diversity and psychological depth15.
James’s work also laid the groundwork for later developments in the psychology of religion and influenced existentialist and humanistic thinkers. His exploration of the divided self, conversion, and mysticism continues to inform both academic research and personal reflection on the nature of spirituality.
William James’s The Varieties of Religious Experience is a foundational text that explores the psychological dimensions of religion through the lens of individual experience. By cataloging the diversity of religious phenomena and analyzing their impact on the human psyche, James offers a nuanced, pragmatic, and enduringly relevant account of why religion persists and how it shapes lives. His work invites readers to consider religious experience as a vital, transformative aspect of human nature—one that cannot be dismissed by science nor fully captured by theology, but must be understood in all its complexity and variety156.