Antisemitism—hostility toward Jews as a group—has been called “the longest hatred,” and understanding its history is critical to changing its course. From ancient times to the present, antisemitism has adapted to shifting social, religious, political, and economic conditions, re-emerging in new forms as societies have changed.
Scholars identify several stages in the development of antisemitism:
: In the ancient Greco-Roman world, antisemitism primarily stemmed from religious and cultural differences. Jews maintained distinct identities, often refusing to adopt local religious practices. Their monotheism contrasted sharply with polytheistic neighbors, leading to suspicion and resentment12.
: With the rise of Christianity, theological differences became pronounced. Jews were blamed in some Christian texts for the death of Jesus, fostering negative stereotypes and justifying widespread discrimination throughout medieval Europe. This religious hostility led to segregation, forced conversions, expulsions, and violence13.
: In classical Islamic societies, Jews (and Christians) were treated as “dhimmis”—protected but subordinate minorities. This status was less oppressive than in some Christian lands, but Jews remained socially marginalized2.
: Economic changes in Europe, the rise of the nation-state, and Enlightenment thought brought new forms of antisemitism. Jews became scapegoats for political and economic instability, and negative stereotypes became entangled with pseudo-scientific racial theories in the 19th century. This shift culminated in the racial antisemitism of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust, in which six million Jews were murdered24.
: Today, antisemitism appears in old and new forms, from conspiracy theories and online hate to discrimination and violence globally. It’s influenced by political, economic, religious, and even geopolitical conflicts, including those involving the State of Israel5.
Several historical and social mechanisms have allowed antisemitism to persist:
: In times of social, political, or economic crisis, societies have often sought scapegoats to explain misfortune. Jews—a visible and often marginalized minority—have repeatedly been blamed for everything from economic downturns to disease64.
: Theological differences, particularly in Christian Europe, led to accusations such as “deicide” (the killing of God), blood libel myths, and demonization of Jewish religious practices. These narratives endured for centuries, shaping the cultural imagination in damaging ways13.
: Legal and social restrictions on Jews in many societies kept Jewish communities isolated, exaggerating stereotypes and fostering distrust or envy of perceived “outsiders.” Assimilation efforts were sometimes met with further suspicion or new forms of exclusion25.
: From the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” to contemporary online forums, conspiracy theories alleging Jewish domination of finance, politics, or media have circulated widely, feeding both populist movements and authoritarian regimes3.
: As social conditions changed, so did antisemitism’s rationale—from religious to racial to political. Antisemitism is not a static prejudice; it mutates to fit contemporary anxieties and contexts35.
Efforts to counter antisemitism must address its roots, challenge its narratives, and work to transform societies at multiple levels. Below are evidence-based strategies that can make a real difference:
: Teaching accurate history—including the Holocaust, the evolution of antisemitism, and the dangers of hate—can inoculate against myths and conspiracy theories.
: Promoting critical analysis and media literacy helps individuals recognize and question stereotypes, misinformation, and propaganda748.
: Integrating Jewish history, culture, and experiences into mainstream school curricula fosters understanding and empathy98.
: Leaders must specifically name and condemn antisemitism when it occurs, without equivocation. Silence or vague language enables bigotry to flourish107.
: Enforcement of anti-discrimination laws, hate crime statutes, and restrictions on hate speech are crucial11.
: Building bridges through interfaith and intercultural initiatives can dissolve prejudices. Programs bringing together Jews and non-Jews in dialogue, shared projects, or cultural exchanges create understanding and reduce “otherness”97.
: Combatting antisemitism often aligns with fighting other forms of discrimination (racism, homophobia, Islamophobia). Coalitions broaden support and recognize the interconnectedness of hate712.
: Individuals, organizations, and institutions must confront antisemitic jokes, slurs, and stereotypes, even when “just a joke.” Silence signals tacit approval97.
: Report antisemitic content on social media platforms and press tech companies to enforce anti-hate policies. Encourage digital literacy and positive online engagement137.
: Contacting representatives, signing petitions, and supporting legislation that protects minority rights strengthens societal resilience against hate141311.
: Providing legal, psychological, and community support for victims encourages reporting and signals communal solidarity1011.
: Open Jewish cultural and religious events to broader communities, breaking down barriers through shared experiences7.
: Non-Jews standing in solidarity—attending events, denouncing hate, and advocating for justice—amplifies voices and shows that antisemitism is a societal concern, not just a Jewish one79.
: Stay informed about evolving trends in antisemitism and support organizations dedicated to researching, tracking, and responding to incidents1513.
: Antisemitism is a transnational phenomenon. International cooperation, information sharing, and unified standards for identifying and combating hatred help build a global response13.
Antisemitism’s longevity is rooted in a complex history of religious, economic, social, and political forces, yet it endures because it adapts to new contexts. Transforming it requires sustained effort: honest confrontation of the past, robust education, vigilant responses to hate, strengthened intergroup bonds, and supportive public policy.
Ultimately, the fight against antisemitism is inseparable from the broader fight for inclusive, democratic, and just societies—where no group is scapegoated and the dignity of all people is protected2713. Combating the world’s oldest hatred is a shared, ongoing responsibility.