Tribalism refers to a social system where people are strongly loyal to their own group—the “tribe”—which can be based on ancestry, culture, language, or shared belief12. Throughout human history, tribes provided safety, belonging, and identity. Tribal loyalty runs deep, often reinforced by rituals, kinship bonds, and collective memory, forming a powerful lens through which group members see the world.
However, tribal boundaries are seldom purely biological or geographical. Language, religion, ethnicity, customs, and even perceived physical markers like skin color become symbols through which tribes define themselves—and distinguish themselves from others23. This “us versus them” mindset can breed suspicion, hostility, or exclusion of outsiders, but can just as easily foster solidarity and cultural preservation.
Caste, most famously associated with South Asia, is an elaborate social hierarchy rigidly defined by birth and reinforced by religious and cultural tradition. Castes organize populations into ranked groups—distinct not only in status but also often in sanctioned occupation, social interaction, and ritual privileges45. Similar systems exist globally under various labels, such as social estates or rank-based hierarchies.
Tribal societies frequently have their own systems of internal ranking, sometimes mimicking outside caste logics, resulting in sub-tribal distinctions or compound marginalization54. This deeply shapes individuals’ destinies: access to wealth, education, and opportunities can be strictly limited, with lower caste groups suffering prolonged exclusion and discrimination.
Unlike caste, class is defined less by ancestry and more by wealth, education, and occupation. In theory, class systems are more fluid than caste. In practice, however, social mobility is often hindered by entrenched markers such as race, ethnic heritage, and inherited cultural capital67. Historically, the intersection of class with tribal, caste, ethnic, and religious identities leads to "conjugated oppression," where disadvantage is compounded by membership in multiple marginalized groups67.
Religion binds groups through shared beliefs and rituals, often acting as both a unifying force within a "tribe" and a boundary against outsiders. These boundaries can foster solidarity but also become grounds for exclusion or open conflict, especially where religious affiliation doubles as a tribal, ethnic, or regional marker289. Religion can serve not only as a marker but as a justification for inequality, perpetuating outgroup stereotypes and discrimination108.
Ethnicity encapsulates shared ancestry, language, customs, and often imagined kinship211. Ethnic groups may overlap with tribes, but also cut across class and nation. Ethnicity provides both pride and, at times, a basis for exclusion. In many cases, preservation of ethnic identity becomes central to resistance against being assimilated or erased by dominant groups2.
Skin color and other phenotypic features are among the most visible “tribal” markers. While often rooted more in perception than genetic significance, color and race have been weaponized to draw sharp distinctions between “us” and “them.” Colonial and scientific misreadings helped to conflate race with social status, giving rise to systemic racism and deeply entrenched inequalities that persist in class and caste structures worldwide38. Color becomes a shortcut for social ranking, belonging, and exclusion.
Other identity markers—such as language, regional origin, dress, or even dietary customs—are mobilized to bolster group boundaries. In a multicultural society, the strength of attachment to these markers typically correlates with attitudes toward tolerance and inclusion. People who have strong identification with tribal, linguistic, or religious markers may simultaneously support multicultural policies but also show sharper in-group preferences12.
“Tribes,” whether large (like nations or religions) or small (like clans or castes), use these markers to:
Define in-group and out-group membership
Shared markers signal who “belongs,” and who should be trusted or favored.
Enforce social norms and hierarchies
Markers help allocate power, status, and opportunity, policing boundaries through sanctions, privileges, or violence.
Shape political and economic resource access
Affirmative action, reservation policies, or exclusionary practices are often justified by reference to these group identities7412.
Structure collective memory and meaning
Rituals, myths, and stories reinforce the importance of the group—and the perils posed by outsiders or traitors.
However, the use of these markers is dynamic. Modern societies are a patchwork of overlapping identities, and changes in mobility, urbanization, and policy can blur, reinforce, or even create new tribal lines. Multiracial religious congregations, for example, may change racial attitudes, but often these spaces end up reinforcing dominant group narratives rather than erasing difference8. Ethnic and religious markers, as much as they can unite, are equally potent in rationalizing new forms of difference and hierarchy.
Tribalism, caste, class, and an array of social markers continue to powerfully shape the fabric of human society. These markers arise from the human need for belonging and security but can be co-opted to justify exclusion, stratification, and even violence. Their persistence and adaptation across cultures and centuries highlight both the deep roots and the ongoing evolution of group identity1211.