Antisemitism—the hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews—is one of the oldest and most persistent forms of prejudice in history. It has changed over time, with different justifications in different eras.
Jews were often viewed as different because they worshipped one God, refused to worship local gods or the Roman emperor, and maintained distinctive customs such as dietary laws and the Sabbath. These differences sometimes led to suspicion and hostility.
One of the most influential causes of antisemitism in Christian societies was the belief that "the Jews killed Christ."
Historically, Jesus was Jewish, as were his disciples and the earliest Christians. The Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, had the legal authority to order crucifixion, which was a Roman form of execution. Some Jewish religious leaders opposed Jesus and played a role in the events leading to his arrest, but historians do not hold all Jews collectively responsible.
Over many centuries, however, some Christians came to believe that all Jews, in every generation, shared guilt for Jesus' death. This idea, known as the charge of collective Jewish guilt or deicide, fueled discrimination, expulsions, forced conversions, violence, and massacres.
A major turning point came in 1965, when the Catholic Church's declaration Nostra Aetate explicitly rejected the idea that Jews as a people, either then or now, are collectively responsible for Jesus' death. Many Protestant churches have also rejected the deicide accusation.
Other false beliefs and social factors contributed to antisemitism:
Religious differences: Jews remained a distinct religious minority in predominantly Christian or Muslim societies.
Economic stereotypes: Because Jews were often excluded from owning land or joining many professions, some became merchants or moneylenders. This led to stereotypes portraying Jews as greedy or controlling finance.
Scapegoating: During crises such as the Black Death in the 14th century, Jews were falsely accused of poisoning wells, leading to massacres.
Conspiracy theories: False claims that Jews secretly control governments, banks, or the media have circulated for centuries and continue today.
Modern racial antisemitism: In the 19th century, some writers began portraying Jews as a biologically separate "race." This racial ideology culminated in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust, in which about six million Jews were murdered.
Today antisemitism appears in several forms:
Vandalism of synagogues and Jewish cemeteries.
Harassment or assaults against Jews because they are Jewish.
Holocaust denial or distortion.
Conspiracy theories about Jewish power or influence.
Online hate speech and extremist propaganda.
Governments, religious organizations, schools, and civil society groups work to combat these forms of prejudice, although antisemitic incidents still occur in many countries.
Traditionally, Jewish law (Halakha) holds that a child born to a Jewish mother is Jewish, regardless of the father's religion. This principle has existed for many centuries.
Different Jewish movements have different standards today:
Orthodox and Conservative Judaism generally recognize someone as Jewish if their mother is Jewish or they have formally converted.
Reform Judaism in many countries may also recognize someone with a Jewish father if the child is raised as Jewish and meets certain communal criteria.
Historically, antisemites usually ignored these religious distinctions. They often labeled people as Jewish based on ancestry rather than belief. Under the Nazi racial laws, for example, a person could be persecuted as Jewish even if they were Christian or had never practiced Judaism.
The tragic irony is that Jewish tradition defines Jewish identity as a religious and communal matter, while many antisemites have defined it as an unchangeable racial identity. Those very different ideas have often been confused, with devastating consequences.